Operating Systems Lecture Notes

2014 September 9 • Processes

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Outline

• Process management.
• The hardware process.
• The abstract machine.
• The process abstraction.

Programs and Processes

• A program by itself is an unexecutable entity.
  • Execution requires far more than just the code.
• A process is the abstraction of an executing program.
  • The central abstraction implemented by an OS.

Hardware Abstraction

• To the hardware, a user looks like a process.
• What does the hardware look like to the user and process?
• An abstract machine is the OS's hardware representation

  

Abstract Machines

• A process (conceptually) executes in a abstract machine.
  • Each process has an abstract machine, or
  • processes share an abstract machine.
  • It depends on what the OS implements.
• Think of an abstract machine as a custom hardware system.
  • “Custom” comes from abstraction.
  • For example, hide or reveal multiple CPUs.

The System-Call Interface

• What does an abstract machine look like?
• A abstract machine presents a system-call interface to processes (and users).
• A system-call interface is a set of procedure-like prototypes.

  ssize_t read(int f, void * b, size_t n);
  

  • Each prototype is a system call.
• Different system-call interfaces are different abstract machines.

The Process Abstraction

• What does a process look like?
• A process is a bag of (almost) all resources needed by a computation.
  • The missing resource is the CPU.
• A process also has other points of view.
  • A protection boundry.
  • A (large-grained) scheduling unit.
  • A smaller piece of a larger computation.

Process Managers

• The process manager is the part of the OS responsible for implementing processes.
  • Creating (and destroying) the abstraction.
  • Setting the hardware to establish process characteristics.
    • Address spaces, for example.
  • Managing the interaction between processes and the other resources.
    • Mainly scheduling, but also other coordination.

Queueing-Diagram Example

The Abstract Machine

• The abstract machine is defined by what the hardware provides and the way the OS represents it.
  • The OS can ignore features that exist or simulate features that don’t.
• The end result is the system-call interface.
  • Different OSs provide different system-call interfaces.
  • The same OS may provide different system-call interfaces.

The System Call

• A system call may look like a procedure, but it’s not.
• A system call transfers control from the user’s process to the OS.
  • Regular procedures stay in the the user’s process (or at least out of the OS).
• The control transfer is provided by hardware.

CPU Multiplexing

Process Implementation

• A process is a bag of resources. How’s it implemented?
• A stuct of fields, each field representing a particular resource.
  • A struct instance is called a process descriptor (or process control block or task control block or …).
• There are alternate implementations.

The Process Table

• Process descriptors are usually stored in an array called the process table.
• A process ID is an index into the process table.
• There are alternate implementations here too.
  • Usually a level of indirection between the table and the entries.

PCB Example

A process (or task) control block (PCB). One PCB per process.

Computation State

• A computation’s life:

  

• A computation can be in one of three states.
  • Unexecuted, executing, or done executing.
• A computation’s state characterizes
  • What the computation is currently doing.
  • What the computation could be doing.

Process State

• A computation’s state is called the process state.
  • Even though the process is passive.
• The OS designer determines the
  • set of possible process states and
  • the way process in one state can go to another state.
• Process states and state changes are a useful way to understand an OS.

State Transitions

• A change in process state is called a process-state transition.
• Process-state transitions are caused by
  • actions taken by the process or
  • actions internal to the OS.
• Process actions include system calls and illegal-address (seg-fault) exceptions.
• OS internal actions include timer expiry or power-off interrupts.

Process-State Diagrams

• An OS’s process states and transitions can be modeled as a directed, labeled graph called a process-state diagram.
  • The nodes are the process states.
  • The edges are the transitions.
  • The edge labels are the actions causing the transition.
• The unexecuted and done executing states are usually omitted.

State-Diagram Example

Inter-Process Relations

• What’s the relation between two processes executing in a system?
• Security says “none”; each is isolated from the other, as it should be.
• That answer may be too strict.
  • Groups of processes may want to cooperate.
  • Other structure (hierarchies) may simplify process management.

Process Hierarchy

• One processes running another leads to a tree hierarchy.
  • The parent creates the children.

  

• An OS can maintain this hierarchy using pointers to process descriptors.

Hierarchy Management

• Processes can share control and data along hierarchy lines.
  • Control sharing occurs through the process’s lifetime.
  • Data sharing is usually done only at child-create time.
• The OS can off-load to the parent some management responsibilities.

Hierarchy Problems

• Sharing along indirect or non-existent lines is hard.
  • Two siblings sharing with each other.
• Establishing dynamic sharing patterns is hard.
  • An on-going role-playing game.

Summary

• A process is a program in execution.
• A process is a bag of resources needed by a program to execute.
  • Except for one important resource.

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This page last modified on 2014 September 10.